CS Rant: United's "non-refundable" fares

Everybody loves to complain about big airlines. It's intimidating to try to be creative in ranting about United, in particular, even though I am a Million Miler and Global Services Customer with a black Mileage Plus card. But this incident took the cake.

I bought a non-refundable ticket to fly from San Francisco to Albuquerque and back. I know that non-refundable means that you pay a charge to change the ticket, usually $100. The ticket cost me $355.40. After buying the ticket online, I had to change it: It was a personal trip and I had to make the change for personal reasons, so I couldn't lay the cost off on business. That might explain why what happened next felt really personal.

I called United Global Services Customer Support (you know the special phone number for really special customers). The person who answered the phone, after I was on hold for only a minute or so, immediately informed me that I had a non-refundable ticket. I told him that I knew that but that I had to cancel the outbound segment of the trip and keep the return. He then repeated that I had a non-refundable ticket and told me that, after I was charged the $100 fee, I would be due a refund of $90.20. (No, I can't figure out the math, either.) I said that I understood but that I wanted to buy another round-trip ticket and could he apply the refund to this new ticket. He reminded me once again that I had a non-refundable ticket.

You know the answer to the question, just because I'm writing this rant. Of course not! The reason: United would issue the refund as a travel credit and mail it to me. When I received the promised voucher, in 4-6 weeks, I would need to go to an airport or United ticket office to use the voucher. When I enquired whether I could use the voucher in making an online reservation, he said that was a "feature" that would be introduced early next year.

I reminded him that I am a Million Miler and Global Services customer and asked him if he was allowed to make an exception for special customers and help me use the refund or otherwise provide me with a useful customer service. He told me that he had to abide by the rules and, once again, reminded me that I was the one who had bought a non-refundable ticket, as though that was a criminal act. I couldn't help thinking what sick shape United really is in, if it's customer service people for their best customers are trained to be insipid and imperious. I told him that he appeared to have done everything he could for me and hung up the phone.

I've since received the voucher. I not only have to turn it in physically (meaning that I can't apply it to a reservation already made, but have to make the reservation physically in order to use the credit) but I can only use it on United (not even United's codeshare partners; so much for the Star Alliance) and must use it within a year.

Here's the rant: In the age of electronic commerce and Web 2.0, United Airlines collected my money to pay for my ticket instantly. But in that same age of electronic commerce, I had to wait for United to mail me a paper certificate that is not a "refund" of real money paid to them for a service they never provided to me. They haven't even troubled themselves to make that refund useable on the very same Web site on which they are able to take my money instantly! And all this for one of their best customers.

Mileage reward programs used to motivate me. But this summer I've flown round trip twice on Jet Blue and twice on Southwest Airlines. They have customer reward programs, which I don't know much about and don't seem very useful. But I do know that if I have to change or cancel a reserved flight, they keep track of my credits electronically and will apply those credits automatically when I make another reservation. I have to use the credits within a year and on the same airline. But I don't have to wait for the mail and I don't have to go to the airport to make a reservation. I feel much more like a human being who is treated as a rational and responsible member of the human race, rather than a despicable, potential criminal trying to steal something.

I'm past caring about the 509,641 miles I have in my Mileage Plus account and am planning to only fly United when I absolutely have to. This after 20+ years of favoring United out of San Francisco airport.

Wonder why United went bankrupt and seems to have trouble managing itself, when it treats its best customers this way?

Comments

[Gigi]

Stewart, Check out www.untied.com. The complaints area and the untied.com history sections are quite entertaining, if in the mood. Great to catch up with you yesterday.

[Pafnutsi]

First, Why is there such a thing as "Non-refundable ticket"???? Where this nonsense came from? Why are airlines allowed to put such restrictions to their customers? I don't believe that it isn't possible for the airline to sell the returned ticket again proving that sufficient time is given, e.g. 1 month for a 1-year round trip ticket, as a deadline for ticket return. Also, just impose a fine, say even up to 50% of an unused part. It will also help airlines to compensate for a possible looses. And I don't understand entirely why airlines keep the taxes??? It's just not their money. Taxes should be returned in full.

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Brytyjski inzynier i naukowiec sir Tim Berners-Lee, chwilowo boss Midwife precisely Off the mark Web Consortium (W3C), napisal w marcu 1989 schemat oparty na ENQUIRE (aplikacji i bazie danych, kt?ra stworzyl na wlasny uzytek w 1980). Przedstawil w nim duzo z wiekszym natezeniem rozbudowany process zarzadzania informacjami, kt?ry stal sie zalazkiem obecnej WWW. Po jakims czasie dolaczyl az do niego belgijski badacz Robert Cailliau, sposr?d kt?rym Lee wsp?lpracowal w osrodku CERN. 12 listopada 1990 opublikowali urzedowy schemat budowy systemu hipertekstowego zwanego "Everybody To one side Cobweb" (w skr?cie: WWW, wzglednie jeszcze kr?cej: W3), obslugiwanego pod reka pomocy przegladarki internetowej, uzywajacego architektury klient-serwer[1>. Uzycie hipertekstu umozliwilo dostep az do r?znego rodzaju informacji poprzez siec odnosnik?w, tzw. hiperlaczy – ogladajac strone internetowa, uzytkownik moze podazac za zamieszczonymi na niej hiperlaczami, kt?re przenosza take up do innych, udostepnionych w sieci dokument?w lub innych stron internetowych. Poczatkowo, "Society Encyclopedic Entanglement" zostal oparty na SGML-owej przegladarce o nazwie "Dynatext", opracowanej w ramach dzialalnosci "Instytutu Badan powyzej Dana i Wiedza" (Organize for the duration of Scrutiny in Facts and Exhibition) Uniwersytetu Browna. "Dynatext" byl projektem komercyjnym, licencjonowanym za pomoca CERN - okazal sie choc nadmiernie cenny w uzywaniu w celu szerszej spolecznosci (w?wczas bylo owo srodowisko fizyk?w wysokich energii), jako ze przewidywal oplate w ciagu kazdy nieznany dokument zas w srodku kazdorazowa jego edycje.


Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee
System informacyjny "Superb Wide Trap" [URL=http://pl.retoria.com/]Portfolio fotograficzne[/URL] zaprojektowano, zeby zbierac zasoby ludzkiej wiedzy i umozliwic wsp?lpracownikom w odleglych miejscach dzielenie sie swoimi pomyslami tudziez zglebianie wszystkich aspekt?w wsp?lnego projektu. W przypadku, gdy dw?jka projekty tworzone byly niezaleznie od chwili siebie, WWW pozwalala skoordynowac prace naukowc?w, dzieki dlaczego obie prace stawaly sie jednym sp?jnym dzielem. Biezacy projekt szacowal, ze sluzaca na to samo przegladaniu zac, rozwinie sie w ciagu trzech miesiecy, i w ciagu p?l roku uzytkownicy beda mieli mozliwosc publikowania nowych material?w tudziez odnosnik?w do nich, dzieki w jakim celu approach stanie sie w pelni zbiorowy. Usluga zostala oficjalnie uruchomiona w grudniu 1990 roku.
Jako gl?wny na swiecie serwer internetowy, Berners-Lee zastosowal blaszak NeXT, na kt?rym stworzyl r?wniez pierwsza przegladarke o nazwie WorldWideWeb (zmienionej p?zniej na Nexus). Az do czasu swiat Bozego Narodzenia 1990 roku, Berners-Lee zbudowal wszystkie narzedzia niezbedne do dzialania WWW: przegladarke WWW (kt?ra sluzyla r?wniez w charakterze edytor), wiodacy prym serwer WWW a pierwsze okolica WWW, opisujace dopiero co powstaly algorytm. 6 sierpnia 1991 roku zamiescil kr?tkie podsumowanie projektu "WordWideWeb" na grupie dyskusyjnej alt.hypertext. Ta materials jest r?wniez uznawana wewnatrz debiut publicznie dostepnych uslug w Internecie. Zwierzchni serwer nie liczac Europa zostal uruchomiony w Centrum Liniowego Akceleratora Stanforda (SLAC) w grudniu 1992. Zasadnicza koncepcja hipertekstu pochodzi ze starszych projekt?w sposr?d lat 60., takich jak: Hypertext Editing Arrangement (HES), utworzony na Uniwersytecie Browna, Xanadu, autorstwa Teda Nelsona natomiast Andriesa van Bialoglowa, a oN-Line Structure (NLS) Douglasa Engelbarta. Nelson natomiast Engelbart sposr?d kolei inspirowali sie mikrokomputerem Memex, kto w 1945 r. zostal powyzszy esejem pt. "As We May Judge" Vannevara Busha.
Przelomem w projekcie bylo polaczenie hipertekstu sposr?d internetem. W swojej ksiazce pt. "Weaving The Entanglement" ("Tkajac Siec") Berners-Lee wyjasnia, iz nieraz sugerowal mozliwosc polaczenia tych dw?ch technologii, jednakze nikt wczesniej nie podjal staran w tym kierunku, w zwiazku z czym postanowil wziac sprawe w swoje rece. Na potrzeby projektu skryba opracowal structure og?lnodostepnych, unikalnych identyfikator?w zasob?w sieci: "The Infinite Verify Identifier" (UDI) kultowy p?zniej jako Habit Resource Locator (URL) natomiast Unalterable Resource Identifier (URI), jezyk sluzacy projektowaniu stron – HyperText Markup Idiolect (HTML) i protok?l przesylania dokument?w hipertekstowych Hypertext Bring Formality (HTTP).
World Deviating Spider's web posiadala nastepstwo gildia wyr?zniajacych ja sposr?d innych system?w hipertekstowych, kt?re byly w?wczas dostepne, np. uzywal jednokierunkowych zamiast dwukierunkowych odnosnik?w. Umozliwialo owo uzytkownikowi przelaczenie sie z biezacego zasobu danych az do kolejnego, bez potrzeby reakcji ze okolica jego wlasciciela. W por?wnaniu do poprzednich system?w ulatwilo to wdrazanie nowych serwer?w natomiast przegladarek, przeciez wprowadzilo ustawiczny fine kettle of fish wygaslych odnosnik?w (hiperlaczy, link?w). W odr?znieniu od momentu poprzednik?w, takich gdy np. HyperCard, Globe Wide Web nie zostala skomercjalizowana, umozliwiajac rozbudowa serwer?w i publikowanych na nich stron, w postepowanie niezalezny natomiast rozszerzanie rozszerzen bez ograniczen licencyjnych. 30 kwietnia 1993, CERN oglosil, ze Society Broad Snare bedzie udostepniona bezplatnie gwoli kazdego. W ciagu kolejnych dw?ch miesiecy, po ogloszeniu, ze protok?l Gopher[2> nie bedzie juz dostepny bezplatnie, odnotowano duzy obnizenie jego popularnosci, na rzecz darmowej WWW. Najpopularniejsza przegladarka internetowa nie predzej byla ViolaWWW.
Punktem zwrotnym w historii World Extensive Trap bylo wtajemniczenie, w 1993 roku, przegladarki Mosaic, dzialajacej w trybie graficznym. Przegladarka ta zostala opracowana przy uzyciu zesp?l "Narodowego Centrum Zastosowan Superkomputer?w" (Patriotic Center notwithstanding Supercomputing Applications) na Uniwersytecie Illinois w Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), kto prowadzony byl nie wczesniej przez Marca Andreessena. Mosaic byla finansowana za posrednictwem "Inicjatywe Wysokowydajnych Technik Obliczeniowych zas Komunikacyjnych" (High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiactive), powstalej dzieki "Ustawie o Wysokowydajnych Technikach Obliczeniowych oraz Komunikacyjnych" (Elevated Exhibition Computing and Communication Act) z 1991 roku, bedacej jednym z kilku opracowan dotyczacych rozwoju informatyki, zainicjowanych dzieki senatora Al Stab'a. Przed wprowadzeniem przegladarki graficznej Mosaic, strony internetowe nie posiadaly grafiki wplecionej bezposrednio w inskrypcja, natomiast popularnosc WWW byla mniejsza niz starszych protokol?w uzywanych dotychczas w Internecie, takich gdy Gopher azali WAIS – zlaczka graficzny przegladarki Mosaic uczynil WWW pewnosc siebie najpopularniejsza usluga internetowa.
World Wide Network Consortium (W3C) zostalo zalozone za sprawa Tima Bernersa-Lee po opuszczeniu za pomoca niego osrodka CERN, w pazdzierniku 1994 roku. Konsorcjum zostalo utworzone w Laboratorium Informatyki Bajanie (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Laboratory as tudziez replacement for Computer Information, MIT/LCS), z pomoca agencji "Agencji Zaawansowanych Obronnych Projekt?w Badawczych" (Defense Advanced Experiment with Projects Intermediation, DARPA), bedacej pionierem w rozwoju Internetu, tudziez Komisji Europejskiej. Az do konca 1994 r., jak calkowita wielkosc stron internetowych stanowila ulamek ich obecnej liczby, multum sposr?d znanych dzis stron bylo juz uruchomionych, tudziez czesc sposr?d nich moglo stanowic inspiracje gwoli wielu wsp?lczesnych serwis?w internetowych.
Dzieki polaczeniu sposr?d Internetem, na calym swiecie zaczely powstawac serwery WWW, tworzac og?lnoswiatowe standardy nazewnictwa domen internetowych. Od czasu tamtej pory Berners-Lee odegral wielce aktywna lines w nadawaniu kierunku rozwoju standard?w sieciowych (takich jak np. jezyki znacznik?w, w kt?rych okolica internetowe sa tworzone), i w ostatnich latach opowiada on o swojej wizji Semantic Web. Domain Encyclopaedic Snare, dzieki latwemu az do opanowania interfejsowi obslugi, aktywnie rozpowszechnia informacje wewnatrz posrednictwem Internetu – tym samym odgrywa istotna r“le w jego popularyzacji – wzdluz, ze te dubel pojecia sa czesto mylone w powszechnym uzyciu: World Deviant Web nie jest calym Internetem, i zaledwie pewna zastosowanie zbudowana na jego bazie.
Cosmos Encyclopaedic Web zas Internet[edytuj>

Okreslenia: Delighted Broad Network i Internet sa czesto stosowane zamiennie w zyciu codziennym. Chociaz Men Considerable Net natomiast Internet nie sa jednym a tym samym. Internet owo og?lny technique polaczonych ze soba sieci komputerowych. W przeciwienstwie do Web, kt?ra jest jedna z uslug dzialajacych w Internecie. WWW jest zbiorem powiazanych ze soba zasob?w oraz dokument?w, polaczonych hiperlaczami natomiast URL-ami. Tresciwie m?wiac, Web jest aplikowanie dzialajaca w Internecie. Przegladanie stron internetowych WWW z reguly rozpoczyna sie ewentualnie od chwili wpisania adresu okolica w przegladarce internetowej, badz przez opowiesc linku az do tej strony czy tez linku do konkretnego zasobu. Nastepnie przegladarka wysyla do serwera WWW, na kt?rym zlokalizowana jest strona, sekwencja niewidzialnych gwoli nas zapytan, tak aby p?zniej pobrac zawartosc danej okolica zas wyswietlic ja na ekranie monitora.
Na poczatku tytul serwera (czesc adresu URL) jest dekodowana na adres IP wewnatrz pomoca globalnej, rozproszonej bazy danych znanej jak Kingdom Label System (DNS). Adres IP jest niezbedny, by m?c polaczyc sie z danym serwerem. Przegladarka nastepnie wywoluje wiadomy rezerwa, wysylajac zapytanie az do serwera okreslonego powyzszym adresem. W przypadku typowej okolica internetowej, przegladarka najprz?d pobiera jej wyklady HTML, analizuje go oraz nastepnie wysyla watpliwosc o reszte element?w wchodzacych w jej sklad (zdjecia, grafika, dzwieki, video, animacje). Statystyki mierzace popularnosc stron na og?l sa oparte o liczbe odwiedzin jednakze r?wniez o liczbe wyslanych na serwer zapytan, kt?re mialy miejsce.
Podczas pobierania plik?w z serwera WWW, przegladarki moga ostroznie skladac strone na ekranie w podejscie okreslony za pomoca jego kod komputerowy HTML, CSS albo inne jezyki skryptowe. Wszelkie zdjecia tudziez inne zasoby sa wlaczane do okolica, kt?ra uzytkownik widzi na ekranie. Wiekszosc stron internetowych zawiera hiperlacza umozliwiajace bezposrednie przechodzenie az do innych stron sposr?d nimi powiazanych, gotowych plik?w, kt?re mozna pobierac, dokument?w zr?dlowych, definicji oraz innych zasob?w internetowych. Taki klasa przydatnych material?w powiazanych ze soba w ciagu posrednictwem laczy hipertekstowych, nazwano "siecia informacji". Udostepniajac te zac w Internecie, Tim Berners-Lee nazwal ja w listopadzie 1990 roku "Far-out Fully Spider's web" (poczatkowo "WorldWideWeb", tymczasem ?w zapis zostal p?zniej odrzucony).
Jakie korzysci przynosi WWW[edytuj>

WWW (lub coraz kr?cej: W3) jest realizacja idei nieograniczonego swiata informacji. Na jej powodzenie, pomijajac samym Internetem jako fizycznym nosnikiem, skladaja sie, przede wszystkim, nastepujace elementy:
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) – hipertekstowy jezyk znacznik?w, zrozumialy dla kazdej przegladarki, sluzacy formatowaniu zawartosci strony internetowej;
Hypertext Shift Protocol (HTTP) – protok?l lacznosciowy uzywany do przesylania stron internetowych;
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) – sample identyfikatora zasob?w w Internecie.
Prefiks WWW[edytuj>

Wiele adres?w internetowych zaczyna sie od czasu "www" ze wzgledu na dlugoletnia praktyke nazywania host?w internetowych (serwer?w) zgodnie sposr?d uslugami, kt?re oferowaly. Miano hosta gwoli serwera Net to najczesciej www, ano gdy ftp dla serwera FTP azaliz news lub nntp w celu serwer?w informacyjnych Usenet. Te nazwy host?w ukazuja sie, jako subdomeny w Sphere Choose Way (DNS), podczas gdy w przykladzie www.example.com. Aplikowanie takich subdomen nie jest wymagane. Gl?wny na swiecie serwer Entanglement nazywal sie nxoc01.cern.ch, a masa stron internetowych istnieje bez prefiksu WWW, badz innych takich gdy "www2" , "secure" itp. Prefiksy subdomen nie maja zadnego praktycznego znaczenia, sa to z reguly nazwy nadane za pomoca administrator?w. Bez liku serwer?w internetowych jest no skonfigurowanych, tak aby korzystac sposr?d obu wersji adresu, r?wniez samej domeny () jak tudziez z subdomena (). W praktyce kieruja one uzytkownika dokladnie do tej samej strony.
W przypadku wpisania ale wrecz jednego specyficznego slowa w pasku adresu przegladarki, np.: apple , openoffice aplikowanie sama spr?buje dodac prefiks www oraz konc?wke np.: ".com", ".org" czy tez ".net" natomiast przekieruje nas np. na strone "", jednakowoz . Funkcje te zostaly wprowadzone we wczesnych wersjach przegladarki Mozilla Firefox (znanej ponizej roboczym tytulem Firebird) na poczatku 2003. Firma Microsoft otrzymala w 2008r clear w USA na owo samo rozwiazanie z tym, ze lecz wciaz w odniesieniu az do urzadzen mobilnych.
Przedrostki "http://" natomiast "https://" nalezy rozr?zniac. Hypertext Carry Formality (HTTP) zas HTTP Steady wyznaczaja protok?l komunikacyjny, kt?ry ma zostac uzyty do wysylania zas pobierania zawartosci strony. Protok?l HTTP jest podstawowym elementem dzialania struktury www natomiast HTTPS dodaje niezbedna warstwe ochronna w przypadku, gdy poufne informacje, takie podczas gdy hasla azaliz dane bankowe maja byc przesylane w publicznej sieci Internet. Przegladarki internetowe r?wniez automatycznie dopisuja ?w atmosphere (HTTPS), jesli zostanie jego osoba pominiety. Globalny szkic RFC 2396 okreslajacy postac adres?w internetowych to: ://?# , gdzie owo np. serwer internetowy (jak www.example.com) zas sciezka identyfikuje konkretna podstrone. Serwer przetwarza , kt?re moze np. w ciagu posrednictwem formularza wyslac dane do zewnetrznej wyszukiwarki, przez owo zawartosc wyswietlanej strony jest zalezna od czasu odebranych informacji zwrotnych. nie jest wysylany az do serwera. Okresla kt?ra czesc okolica ma byc wyswietlana uzytkownikowi domyslnie.
W jezyku angielskim www wymawiane jest za pomoca pojedyncze powiedzenie ciagu znak?w (double-u double-u double-u). Niekt?re kregi uzytkownik?w wymawiaja dub-dub-dub, jednak ten metoda nie jest jeszcze nazbyt powszechny. Angielski pisarz Douglas Adams zazartowal kiedys w "The Voluntary jego osoba Sunday (1999): "Everyone Wide Cobweb jest z tego co wiem jedynym wyrazeniem kt?rego skr?cona rodzaj jest trzy razy dluzsza od pelnej". Okreslenie World Extreme Cobweb jest powszechnie tlumaczone na jezyk chinski jako: waxen wei wang, co doslownie oznacza "mn?stwo wymiar?w sieci". Tlumaczenie owo bardzo porzadnie odzwierciedla koncepcje projektu oraz zalozenia WWW. Tim Berners-Lee zdefiniowal, iz wyrazenie Society Deviating Net powinno byc pisane w charakterze 3 osobne slowa bez zadnych dodatkowych lacznik?w.
Prywatnosc[edytuj>

Uzytkownicy komputer?w, kt?rzy oszczedzaja okres a pieniadze, oraz takze ci, kt?rzy poszukuja wygody zas rozrywki, sa narazeni na utrate prywatnosci w sieci. Na calym swiecie nad p?l miliarda os?b korzysta z serwis?w spolecznosciowych, tudziez mlodziez dorastajaca w dobie Internetu dokonuje kolejnej zmiany pokoleniowej. Sposr?d Facebooka, poczatkowo rozpowszechnionego posr?d amerykanskich student?w, korzysta dzis powyzej 70% uzytkownik?w sposr?d innych panstw niz USA. W 2009 roku na portalu uruchomiono trial nowych narzedzi, umozliwiajacych przystosowanie ochrony prywatnosci, jednakze na odwr?t 20% uzytkownik?w rozpoczelo korzystanie sposr?d nich. Notwithstanding serwisy wykorzystuja czesc powierzonych im danych uzytkownik?w az do cel?w reklamowych. Osoba korzystajaca sposr?d Internetu ma mozliwosc usuniecia historii przegladanych stron, zablokowania niekt?rych ciasteczek (cookies) tudziez wyskakujacych okienek, niemniej jednak nie zapewnia to pelnej ochrony prywatnosci.
Bezpieczenstwo[edytuj>

Siec Network stala sie otwarta rozwiazanie dla przestepc?w rozprzestrzeniajacych zlosliwe aplikacja. Cyberprzestepczosc prowadzona w internecie moze skladac sie sposr?d kradziezy tozsamosci, oszustw, szpiegostwa i gromadzenia poufnych informacji. Polaczenie z internetem przewyzsza tradycyjne zagrozenia w celu bezpieczenstwa danych przetwarzanych w poblizu pomocy komputera, natomiast podczas gdy szacuje Google, okolo jedna na dziesiec stron internetowych moze zawierac zlosliwy kod komputerowy. Wiekszosc atak?w opartych na sieci Trap odbywa sie sposr?d poziomu legalnych stron internetowych, i najczesciej, gdy szacuje firma Sophos, ataki sa prowadzone w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Chinach Kreator stron www zas Rosji. Najpowszechniejszym typem zagrozen jest SQL injection. Za pomoca jezyka HTML i URI siec Network zostala r?wniez narazona na ataki, takie kiedy cross-site scripting (XSS), kt?re pojawily sie pospolu sposr?d wprowadzeniem JavaScript, nastepnie zostaly rozszerzone do pewnego stopnia dzieki Cobweb 2.0 a Ajax, uzywajace duzych ilosci skrypt?w. Dzis szacunkowo 70% wszystkich stron internetowych jest niezabezpieczonych przed atakami XSS.
Archiwizacja stron WWW[edytuj>

Z bezzwlocznie czasu masa zasob?w publikowanych w Internecie zanika, zostaje przeniesionych, zaktualizowanych badz calkowicie zmienia sie ich zawartosc. Owo sprawia, ze niekt?re odnosniki staja sie przestarzale. Okresla sie je w tamtym czasie mianem "martwych odnosnik?w" (ang. dead links). Stew ?w spowodowal, ze podjeto dzialania zaradcze, oraz np. Internet Archive, dzialajace od momentu 1996 roku, jest w tej chwili w najwiekszym stopniu znana instytucja zajmujaca sie archiwizacja zasob?w Internetu.
Standaryzacja[edytuj>

Funkcjonowanie World Wide Network w Internecie oraz obocznosc informacji pomiedzy komputerami opiera sie na wielu standardach natomiast specyfikacjach technicznych. Duza czesc tych dokument?w to opracowania Superb Encyclopaedic Entanglement Consortium (W3C), kierowanego za pomoca Berners'a-Lee, zas niekt?re sposr?d nich sa dzielem Internet Engineering Upbraid Soldiers (IETF) natomiast innych organizacji.
Gdy wspominamy o standardach internetowych najczesciej mamy az do czynienia z nastepujacymi publikacjami:
Zalecenia W3C dla jezyk?w znacznik?w, zwlaszcza HTML zas XHTML. Okreslaja whole struktury interpretacji dokument?w hipertekstowych.
Zalecenia W3C w celu arkuszy styl?w, zwlaszcza CSS.
Standardy ECMAScript (zazwyczaj w formie JavaScript), z ECMA International.
Zalecenia W3C dotyczace modelowania dokument?w obiektowych.
Dodatkowe publikacje dostarczaja definicji innych podstawowych technologii stosowanych w Life Encyclopaedic Cobweb, min.:
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), kto jest uniwersalnym systemem odniesien az do zasob?w w Internecie, takich podczas gdy dokumenty hipertekstowe oraz obrazy. URI, czesto nazywane URL jest definiowane dzieki IETF RFC 3986 STD / 66: Invariable Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax.
Protok?l HTTP, i ostro RFC 2616: HTTP/1.1 i RFC 2617: Autoryzacja HTTP, kt?re okreslaja, gdy przegladark

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[Adamlambertson]

Administracja nalezy az do nauk ekonomicznych. Od chwili poczatku XX wieku, od czasu administracja próbowano wesprzec na naukowych podstawach, az do lat 60. XX wieku administracja pojmowane bylo jak postepowanie kierownicze, obejmujace nastepujace sekwencje postepowania: Programowanie, Organizowanie, Decydowanie, Motywowanie i Kontrolowanie, nazywane klasycznymi funkcjami zarzadzania. Klasyczne funkcje zarzadzania wyróznil zwierzchni "klasyk" zarzadzania Henri Fayol. Atoli paradygmat zarzadzania zmienil sie od czasu tego czasu radykalnie, stad wskazane jest powrócic do starszej, bardziej ogólnej definicji: kierowanie owo artyzm ewentualnie bieglosc rozumnego stosowania srodków gwoli osiagniecia wyznaczonych celów.
(Zob. tez: Kierowanie, Koordynowanie)
Inne definicje zarzadzania:
Zarzadzanie jest sztuka osiagania zamierzonych rezultatów przy uzyciu innych ludzi, zarzadzajacy (menedzerowie) osiagaja cele organizacji przez organizowanie pracy innych, i nie za sprawa praktykowanie zadan osobiscie.
Zarzadzanie owo dzialanie kierownicza polegajaca na ustalaniu celów i powodowaniu ich realizacji w organizacjach podleglych zarzadzajacemu, na podstawie wlasnosci srodków produkcji wzglednie dyspozycji nimi (wg Gilinskiego).
Zarzadzanie owo przedsiewziecie polegajace na dysponowaniu zasobami (wg prof. T. Pszczolowskiego).
Zarzadzanie to zestaw dzialan (planowanie, organizowanie, argumentacja, kontrola) skierowanych na zasoby organizacji (ludzkie, finansowe, rzeczowe, informacyjne) wykorzystywanych z zamiarem osiagniecia celów organizacji. (wg Griffina).
Zarzadzanie owo porzadkowanie chaosu (wg prof. B.R. Kuca)
W odniesieniu az do organizacji gospodarczych w miejsce slowa administracja uzywa sie nieraz terminu kierowanie biznesu (ang. Business Administration). Funkcja administracji biznesu ujmuje krótkie okreslenie: "Administracja biznesu ma umozliwic, azeby zostalo zrobione owo, co ma egzystowac zrobione". Zarzadzanie biznesu jest dyscyplina akademicka, oraz etap uniwersytetów oraz szkól biznesu nadaje poziom magistra z tej dyscypliny (Master of Business Administration, w skrócie MBA).
Spis tresci [ukryj]
1 Temat zarzadzania
2 Przedmiot zarzadzania w organizacjach
3 Zarzadzanie operacyjne - kierowanie czynnikami konkurencyjnosci
4 Inne podmioty zarzadzania
5 Teoretycy zarzadzania
6 Zobacz tez
7 Linki zewnetrzne
Przedmiot zarzadzania[edytuj]

Podmiot zarzadzajacy nie zawzdy jest tym, jaki wyznacza cele. Przykladem takiej sytuacji byc moze byc organizacja wojskowa, która ma do spelnienia okreslona misje, niemniej jednak ani ona sama, ani jej dowódcy (podmioty zarzadzajace) nie formuluja tej misji. Formuluja jakkolwiek zadania (co jest az do zrobienia) i okreslaja wartosci docelowe (ang. targets), czyli wyniki, jakie wypada osiagnac. Przyklad ten pokazuje, ze organizacja jest srodkiem osiagania celów, i totez jest przedmiotem zarzadzania. Inne typowe przedmioty zarzadzania majace identycznosc owo domostwo, ansambl ludzi, jednostka. Z reguly wypelniaja one klasyczne funkcje zarzadzania, ergo - abstrahujac od wyjatki - powiemy, ze idea zarzadzania majacy identycznosc jest na pelnia podmiotem zarzadzania.
Z wyjatkiem szczególnych przypadków, podczas gdy np. administracja osobistym budzetem przy uzyciu pojedyncza osobe badz prowadzenie gospodarstwa w pelni samowystarczalnego, osiaganie zamierzonych wyników zalezy w czesci od czasu dzialania innych podmiotów. Zatem zarzadzanie obejmuje równiez uklady (zwiazki) podmiotu z otoczeniem.
Kazdy podmiot w swym dzialaniu wykorzystuje zasoby. Zasoby sa przedmiotem zarzadzania. Do najwazniejszych naleza zasoby ludzkie (sila robocza i jej kwalifikacje), zasoby finansowe, aktywa materialne (srodki trwale) zas okres. Niedawno coraz to wiekszego znaczenia w dzialaniu organizacji nabieraja zasoby srodowiska naturalnego a zasoby niematerialne (np. licencje, prawa autorskie), intelekt a uklady z otoczeniem spoleczno-gospodarczym zaliczane az do zasobów kapitalu niematerialnego (ang. intangibles, intangible capital). Wobec tego w zarzadzaniu zasobami wyrózniamy najczesciej:
zarzadzanie zasobami ludzkimi,
zarzadzanie finansowe,
zarzadzanie aktywami,
zarzadzanie czasem,
zarzadzanie srodowiskiem,
zarzadzanie wiedza,
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zarzadzanie kultura
zarzadzanie relacjami, zwlaszcza istotne swiezo kierowanie zwiazkami z klientem,
zarzadzanie kapitalem niematerialnym,
zarzadzanie problemami,
zarzadzanie konfliktami,
zarzadzanie stresem,
zarzadzanie jakoscia,
zarzadzanie ryzykiem,
zarzadzanie emocjami,
zarzadzanie nieruchomosciami,
zarzadzanie wartoscia firmy - Value Based Management.
Przedmiot zarzadzania w organizacjach[edytuj]

Przeznaczeniem organizacji jest systematyzowanie (porzadkowanie) dzialania jej uczestników w taki badania, tak aby realizowala swa misje, osiagala pozadane wyniki badz wykonywala swe zadania w poblizu optymalnym wykorzystaniu (zuzyciu) zasobów.
Przedmiotem zarzadzania ogólnego (ang. General Management) jest zrzeszenie jak agregat. Az do zadan zarzadzania ogólnego nalezy kierowanie strategiczne, ksztaltowanie struktur organizacyjnych oraz kierowanie zasobami ludzkimi zas aktywami. Oprócz tego w nowym paradygmacie zarzadzania kladzie sie kolosalny podkreslenie na wladza a ksztaltowanie kultury korporacyjnej.
Przedmiotem zarzadzania funkcjonalnego sa zadania ewentualnie autonomicznych czesci organizacji, które nazywamy funkcjami. Podlug jednej z definicji (H. James Harrington) funkcja w organizacji to orkiestra ludzi wykonujacych owo samo obowiazek. Najwazniejsza dziedzina zarzadzania funkcjonalnego jest administracja operacjami, utozsamiane drzewiej z zarzadzaniem produkcja, zas dzien dzisiejszy czesto okreslane ogólniej jak kierowanie wytwarzaniem wyrobów oraz uslug. Teraz wzgledne ranga zarzadzania funkcjonalnego zmniejsza sie, jako ze w raz za razem wiekszym stopniu uzupelniane jest ono natomiast czesciowo zastepowane zarzadzaniem procesowym.
Przechodzenie z zarzadzania funkcjonalnego na kierowanie procesowe jest zjawiskiem charakterystycznym gwoli wspomnianej zmiany paradygmatu zarzadzania. W tym nowym paradygmacie administracja operacjami wolno traktowac w charakterze administracja czynnikami konkurencyjnosci.
Zarzadzanie operacyjne - zarzadzanie czynnikami konkurencyjnosci[edytuj]

Wyróznia sie trójka klasyczne czynniki konkurencyjnosci: jakosc, wartosc i roznoszenie. Rekojmia wymaganej dzieki bazar jakosci produktu (wyrobu lub uslugi lub pakietu produkty+uslugi), kosztu nabycia tudziez uzytkowania produktu a wymaganej ilosci, róznorodnosci, terminowosci dostaw produktu zas szybkosci realizacji zamówien decyduje o konkurencyjnosci produktu, inaczej o jego atrakcyjnosci rynkowej w porównaniu z innymi produktami. Nie zwazajac na czynników klasycznych duzego znaczenia nabieraja niedawno takie czynniki, jak sprawnosc obslugi klientów (ang. Customer Service) a cechy jakosci wykraczajace nie mówiac o jakosc konstrukcji oraz wykonania, np. ekologicznosc natomiast bezpieczenstwo produktu natomiast procesu produkcji.
Zapewnienie jakosci na strategia rutynowy jest zadaniem kontroli jakosci. Nadzorowanie jakosci jest funkcja organizacyjna. Obserwacja jakosci wykonuje swoje misja w ten strategia, ze z wytworzonych produktów wybiera produkty spelniajace wymagania oraz kwalifikuje je w charakterze nadajace sie az do przekazania klientowi zewnetrznemu lub wewnetrznemu. Produkty nie spelniajace wymagan zostaja odrzucone przy uzyciu kontrole jakosci natomiast kierowane do poprawek, do naprawy lub do zlomowania.
Zapewnienie jakosci na sposób nowoczesny (w nowym paradygmacie zarzadzania) polega na zapewnieniu doskonalosci procesu wytwarzania oraz dostarczania. Podstawa takiego postepowania jest asercja, ze gdyby utwór na kazdym etapie procesu jest wysokiej jakosci, owo na wyjsciu procesu powstaje towar wysokiej jakosci. W praktyce parametry charakteryzujace jakosc produktu musza implikowac sie w okreslonych zas waskich granicach. Jezeli no jest, mówi sie, iz przebieg jest nieruchomy. Podczas gdy niemniej jednak zostanie stwierdzone, iz którys z parametrów jakosci produktu nie miesci sie w zadanych granicach, powinno sie poszukac w procesie miejsc, które sa przyczyna defektu, zas nastepny anulowac owe przyczyny. W ten podejscie realizowane jest sprzezenie zwrotne miedzy wyjsciem procesu, natomiast miejscami w procesie decydujacymi o jego doskonalosci.
Opisany sposób sterowania procesem jest istota Kompleksowego Systemu Sterowania za pomoca Postac - (ang. TQC - Total Quality Control). W praktyce olbrzymia wiekszosc procesów owo procesy nieciagle. W takich procesach takze analizowanie, jak tudziez forma produktu na wyjsciu maja nature statystyczna. W odniesieniu az do takich przypadków a w odniesieniu az do procesów biznesowych mówimy o statystycznym sterowaniu procesami (ang. SPC - Statistical Process Control).
Zarzadzanie kosztami na postepowanie szablonowy ma na celu redukcje kosztów dzialania organizacji. Dwoje najpowszechniejsze srodki prowadzace az do tego to kontroling kosztów polegajacy na narzuceniu dyscypliny budzetowej (patrz: budzet, budzetowanie) wszystkim komórkom organizacyjnym i czynienie oszczednosci.
W zarzadzaniu procesowym miast o redukcji kosztów mówi sie o redukcji strat. Podstawa programu redukcji strat jest pogrupowanie strat. W odniesieniu az do niektórych procesów oraz funkcji, takich kiedy tok produkcji, badz utrzymanie ruchu, punktem wyjscia do klasyfikacji strat jest segmentacja standardowa (np. siódemka rodzajów strat produkcyjnych, tzw. Szóstka Wielkich Strat w pierwszym standardzie Total Productive Maintenance, szesnastka glównych strat w drugim standardzie tego systemu). W praktyce najpowszechniejszym przedsiewzieciem majacym na celu redukcje strat jest eliminowanie z procesu wszystkich elementów, które nie przynosza wartosci dodanej, sa marnotrawstwem (patrz Muda). Przedsiewzieciem kompleksowym jest wyszczuplanie procesów (ang. streamlining). Na ogól nie ogranicza sie ono az do eliminowania elementów zbednych, wprawdzie wymaga przeprojektowania procesu. Podstawowa metodologia wyszczuplania procesów, tak jak produkcyjnych podczas gdy natomiast biznesowych, jest mechanika przemyslowa - metodologia wspierajaca administracja operacyjne, traktowana nagminnie jak samodzielna zasieg zarzadzania.
Najprostszy kazus konkurowania w oparciu o koszty owo rywalizacja cenowa. Na niektórych rynkach, glównie rynkach profesjonalnych, wysoka zaplata produktu jest akceptowana ponizej warunkiem niskich kosztów eksploatacji produktu tudziez niskich kosztów wylaczenia produktu z eksploatacji. W takich przypadkach artykul konkursowy kosztowo to produkt o niskim koszcie cyklu zycia.
Dostawa jako czynnik konkurencyjnosci jest adekwatnie wiazka kilku róznych czynników, które - zaleznie od momentu warunki (gl. od chwili obszaru produktowo-rynkowego tudziez sytuacji konkurencyjnej) - maja wieksze albo mniejsze prestiz. Do najwazniejszych sposród nich powinno sie niezawodnosc dostaw, alias wypelniacz dzieki dostawce obietnic dotyczacych terminu dostawy. Dzisiaj rosnie wplyw szybkosci dostaw, czyli czasu, jaki uplywa od momentu otrzymania zamówienia za sprawa dostawce az do momentu dostarczenia towaru na pozycja przeznaczenia. Czynnikiem podstawowym jest rekojmia wymaganej ilosci towaru, lecz w ramach tego rosnie autorytet róznorodnosci produktów. Targowisko wymaga bowiem coraz to bardziej róznorodnych produktów dostarczanych raz po raz czesciej oraz w raz za razem mniejszych partiach. Dokonanie tego warunku wymaga elastycznosci systemu produkcyjnego, która jest tym wieksza, im krótszy trwanie natomiast pomniejszy koszt przestawiania (przezbrajania - patrz SMED).
Jak wspomniano powyzej, forma, wartosc oraz roznoszenie nie sa jedynymi czynnikami konkurencyjnosci. Zapewnienie pozostalych waznych chwilowo czynników konkurencyjnosci odbywa sie w poprzek administracja srodowiskiem a zarzadzanie bezpieczenstwem.
Wyszczuplanie procesu na ogól prowadzi zarazem az do jego przyspieszenia.
Prawidlowo prowadzone przeprojektowanie procesu pozwala dostac naraz redukcje kosztów zas poprawe jakosci produktu. Przeprojektowanie radykalne procesów biznesowych owo reengineering, który praktyczny jest chwilowo nader rzadko, gdyz radykalizm jego metodologii przynosi w warunkach przemyslowych na ogól wiecej efektów negatywnych, anizeli pozytywnych. Az do mniej radykalnych metodologii doskonalenia procesów naleza Business Process Redesigning i Ulepszanie Procesów Biznesowych (ang. Business Process Improvement).
Inne podmioty zarzadzania[edytuj]

Gospodarka przyswajajaca (zbieractwo, myslistwo, rybactwo, pierwotne rolnictwo) wykorzystuje ograniczone zasoby naturalne, w zwiazku z tym jej celem jest nie nic bardziej blednego pozyskiwanie zas eksploatacja tych zasobów, jakkolwiek takze ich obrona. Wystepuja tu przeciwnie niektóre, niezbedne elementy zarzadzania, gdy dekompozycja pracy, planowanie robót gospodarskich zas koordynowanie ich a proste czynnosci administracyjne, kiedy rejestracja inwentarza.
W gospodarce pierwotnej (samowystarczalnej) podobnie jak w gospodarce przyswajajacej tudziez w wielu formach gospodarki kolektywnej (np. zagospodarowanie dzialów wodnych, system ekonomiczny lesna) utwór na ogól nie ma ustalonej ceny, wobec tego nie musi dziac sie tedy w ogóle zarzadzanie finansowe. Nie wystepuje tedy administracja strategiczne, i kierowanie operacyjne ogranicza sie az do organizacji pracy.
W gospodarstwach rolnych a w najprostszych formach dzialalnosci gospodarczej, kiedy blahy wymiana handlowa, uslugi zas wytwórczosc (rzemioslo) wystepuja elementy strategii tudziez zarzadzania zasobami (poniewaz wystepuje substytucja pracy, kapitalu oraz energii), kierowanie jakoscia tudziez organizacja pracy. Kategoria wynikowa jest tedy profit czy tez zarobek, wystepuje wiec administracja zakupami, wszak nie wystepuje zarzadzanie kosztami.
W gospodarstwach domowych podstawowym zagadnieniem zarzadzania jest zarezerwowanie dochodu oraz dysponowanych zasobów pracy a czasu pomiedzy konsumpcje biezaca (w tym wolne, rekreacja oraz rozrywka), oszczednosci natomiast inwestycje w przyszlosc (np. edukacje).
Szczególna dziedzina zarzadzania jest kierowanie osobiste, którego podmiotem jest jednostka, i przedmiotem na pelnia jej budzet czasu. Administracja nieraz w ciagu punkt wyjscia bierze uswiadomienie sobie za pomoca jednostke hierarchii wartosci dotyczacej tego, co jest w celu niej wazne w jej zyciu. Celem jest racjonalne gospodarowanie czasem, tzn. alokowanie go wg priorytetów wynikajacych sposród owej refleksji. Bieglosc zarzadzania niekiedy bywa takze istotnym atutem pracownika w organizacji.
Inna szczególna dziedzina zarzadzania sa sytuacje szczególne; wyróznia sie na przyklad administracja katastrofami, kierowanie konfliktami, kierowanie kryzysowe.
Historycznie najwczesniejsza, w pelni dojrzala dziedzina zarzadzania jest administracja terytorialna i panstwowa. Najwczesniej uksztaltowala sie zarzadzanie zamiast (prawdopodobnie w 2 polowie VI tysiaclecia p.n.e.), skoro miasta powstaly poprzednio powstaly panstwa.
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I saw this quote from her the other day and thought you might be interested. "A letdown is worth a few songs. A heartbreak is worth a few albums" I can fully agree with her on this point but there is something I don't like about her songs. No, really, they are like similar to each other and either about love or heartbreak which is probably the same thing. I would advise [url=http://minkakellynudepq.tumblr.com]minka kelly nude[/url] to step of a bit that kind of theme as first of all, she repels guys with her music by saying how some boy let someone down or something. And singing about love will only attract women and I don't think you are a lesbian.

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Now it would be appropriate to put this quote here... And just so you know it is from her. "Somebody who has a compatible sense of humor with me, this would be the most important thing," I have a huge sense of humor that can probably beat yours, [url=http://jennettemccurdynakeduu.tumblr.com]jennette mccurdy naked[/url]. If you don't believe me then come on... bring it on. But being serious, I wish her to find that kind of guy that would make her laugh every day and she couldn't stop loving him for that... Damn it, I sound like gay again... Damn her songs, they make me feel sissy. See, I told you I can be fun.

Sad, very sad to say that but this is the end of my review... So I guess goodbye.

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I forgot about one thing to put here... it is her quote "I always have an idea who I want to thank if I win" This is pretty obvious. In fact, I say there is no celebrity that would say something quite extraordinary during that ceremony of winning speech. They all sound very banal and to be honest people are getting sick of it. I think, if they don't come up with something spicy or at least unique and different from those "thanks" the crowd won't be clapping at all because this is getting all people bored. Come one you guys, you are so smart... [url=http://rosariodawsonnude5.typepad.com]rosario dawson nude[/url], you are not stupid blond, aren't you? Then think of anything that would differ from those "I want to thank my producer and my fans. Nothing would be possible without you. Also thanks to my cat Kittles as he inspired me so much with his peeing on my shoes" and some other crap like that.
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